The+Caribbean

Dominican Republic The Dominican Republic occupies the eastern two-thirds of the island Hispaniola, which it shares with Haiti. Covering 18,815 square miles (48,731 square kilometers), it is about twice the size of New Hampshire. The central mountain range, Cordillera Central, boasts the highest point in the Caribbean, Pico Duarte, at a little more than 10,000 feet (3,048 Weather meter generally is tropical, hot, and humid, especially along southern and eastern coasts. Temperatures average in the high 90s or above during summer months, with August being the hottest. A dry, desert-like climate, due to deforestation and little rainfall, prevails in western and southwestern regions. Rainy seasons, when the temperature drops to the 70s, may vary in different parts of the country, but they generally run from December to March. Military dictator Rafael Leonidas Trujillo gained the presidency in 1930 and ruled for three decades until he was assassinated in 1961. His merciless persecution and massacre of Haitians in the late 1930s added to the list of grievances between the two countries. His death brought civilian unrest, political revolt, and division within the army. In 1965, U.S. Marines and an inter-American peacekeeping force stepped in. With stability restored, elections were held, and in 1966 the constitutional government was reestablished. Continuing under this system, today's Dominican Republic is the largest and most populous democracy in the Caribbean region. The Dominican Republic's population of roughly 9.5 million is growing at a rate of about 1.5 percent. More than one-third of the population is younger than age 16. The rural population is steadily decreasing through migration to cities. Mixed-race people account for 73 percent of the total population; 16 percent is Caucasian, and 11 percent is black. The mixed-race group is a combination of descendants of Spaniards and other Europeans, West African slaves, and perhaps some indigenous peoples. A Haitian minority is included in the black population. Additionally, more than one million Dominicans live full- or part-time in New York City, U.S.A. The official language is Spanish, but Caribbean phrases, accents, and regional expressions give Dominican Spanish a distinct personality. For example, when eating, people request un chin instead of the Spanish un poquito (a little bit) of something. Many people drop the s at the end of words, turning dos (two) into do'. Cibao Valley residents, or Cibaeños, and inhabitants of Santo Domingo, or capitaleños, may pronounce the r, l, or i differently. The formal Spanish form of address for “you” (usted) is used, but most people prefer the more familiar tú. Some creole is spoken near the Haitian border and in the bateys (sugarcane villages), where many Haitian workers live. The main meal, comida, is served at midday and often lasts two hours. Families prefer eating at home. Urban workers unable to return home may eat at inexpensive cafés or buy from vendors. Desayuno (breakfast) usually is light: sweetened coffee and bread. People in urban areas often eat a bit more. Cena (the evening meal) is also light, often not more than a snack or leftovers from comida. Guests are served first, and sometimes separately and more elaborately. Table conversation is often lively. Dining out is popular among those who can afford it. A service charge is typically included in the bill. Dominicans do not eat rice and beans at midday, they feel they have not eaten. Most meals feature rice along with such favorites as habichuelas (beans) and yuca (cassave). Yuca may be boiled, battered and deep-fried, or baked into rounds of crisp cracker bread called casabe. Plátanos (plantains) and bananas are plentiful. Mangoes, papaya, pineapples, guavas, avocados, and other tropical fruits (passion fruit, coconuts, and star fruit) are grown locally and eaten in season. People may eat small quantities of chicken, beef, pork, or goat with a meal. A meal of rice, beans, and chicken is nicknamed la bandera, referring to the colors of the national flag. Bacalao (dried fish, usually cod) is eaten in some areas; fresh fish is eaten only along the coast. Food is generally not spicy. The national dish is sancocho, a rich vegetable-and-meat stew served on special occasions. Habichuelas con dulce (a dessert similar to rice pudding but made with beans) is popular at Easter. Dominican coffee is usually served sweet and strong. National beers and rums are highly regarded and widely consumed. Bottled soft drinks, sweetened fruit juices, and fruit batidas, or milkshakes, are popular. The economy, once dependent on agriculture, is becoming more oriented toward service and tourism. Agriculture, however, still remains an important industry. Coffee, sugar, pineapple, cocoa, tobacco, and rice are key crops for both export and domestic use. Fluctuating world prices impact earnings and make the domestic market somewhat volatile. Dominicans living abroad often send earnings back to families in the Republic; the money constitutes an important source of revenue. Industrial activity includes sugar refining, cement, mining, and pharmaceuticals. Assembly plants for various products are located in duty-free zones, as are clothing factories and telemarketing offices. The environment has suffered from the exploitation of mineral and natural resources, but efforts at conservation are being made. In 2007, the Dominican Republic implemented the free-trade agreement DR-CAFTA.

-AShley Although human experience on the territory of present-day Russia dates back to Paleolithic times, the first lineal predecessor of the modern Russian state was founded in 862. The political entity known as Kievan Rus was established in Kiev in 962 and lasted until the 12th century. In the 10th century, Christianity became the state religion under Vladimir, who adopted Greek Orthodox rites. Consequently, Byzantine culture predominated, as is evident in much of Russia's architectural, musical, and artistic heritage. Over the next centuries, various invaders assaulted the Kievan state and, finally, Mongols under Batu Khan destroyed the main population centers except for Novgorod and Pskov in the 13th century and prevailed over the region until 1480. Some historians believe that the Mongol period had a lasting impact on Russian political culture.
 * HISTORY**

In the post-Mongol period, Muscovy gradually became the dominant principality and was able, through diplomacy and conquest, to establish suzerainty over European Russia. Ivan III (1462-1505) referred to his empire as "the Third Rome" and considered it heir to the Byzantine tradition. Ivan IV (the Terrible) (1530-1584) was the first Russian ruler to call himself tsar. He pushed Russian eastward with his conquests but his later reign was marked by the cruelty that earned him his familiar epithet. He was succeeded by Boris Godunov, whose reign commenced the so-called Time of Troubles. Relative stability was achieved when Michael Romanov established the dynasty that bore his name in 1613.

During the reign of Peter the Great (1689-1725), modernization and European influences spread in Russia. Peter created Western-style military forces, subordinated the Russian Orthodox Church hierarchy to the tsar, reformed the entire governmental structure, and established the beginnings of a Western-style education system. He moved the capital westward from Moscow to St. Petersburg, his newly-established city on the Baltic. His introduction of European customs generated nationalistic resentments in society and spawned the philosophical rivalry between "Westernizers" and nationalistic "Slavophiles" that remains a key dynamic of current Russian social and political thought.

Catherine the Great continued Peter's expansionist policies and established Russia as a European power. During her reign (1762-96), power was centralized in the monarchy, and administrative reforms concentrated great wealth and privilege in the hands of the Russian nobility. Catherine was also known as an enthusiastic patron of art, literature and education and for her correspondence with Voltaire and other Enlightenment figures. Catherine also engaged in a territorial resettlement of Jews into what became known as "The Pale of Settlement," where great numbers of Jews were concentrated and later subject to vicious attacks known as pogroms.

Alexander I (1801-1825) began his reign as a reformer, but after defeating Napoleon's 1812 attempt to conquer Russia, he became much more conservative and rolled back many of his early reforms. During this era, Russia gained control of Georgia and much of the Caucasus. Throughout the 19th century, the Russian Government sought to suppress repeated attempts at reform and attempts at liberation by various national movements, particularly under the reign of Nicholas I (1825-1855). Its economy failed to compete with those of Western countries. Russian cities were growing without an industrial base to generate employment, although emancipation of the serfs in 1861 foreshadowed urbanization and rapid industrialization late in the century. At the same time, Russia expanded into the rest of the Caucasus, Central Asia and across Siberia. The port of Vladivostok was opened on the Pacific coast in 1860. The Trans-Siberian Railroad opened vast frontiers to development late in the century. In the 19th century, Russian culture flourished as Russian artists made significant contributions to world literature, visual arts, dance, and music. The names of Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol, Repin, and Tchaikovsky became known to the world.

Alexander II (1855-1881), a relatively liberal tsar, emancipated the serfs. His 1881 assassination, however, prompted the reactionary rule of Alexander III (1881-1894). At the turn of the century, imperial decline became evident. Russia was defeated in the unpopular Russo-Japanese war in 1905. The Russian Revolution of 1905 forced Tsar Nicholas II (1894-1917) to grant a constitution and introduce limited democratic reforms. The government suppressed opposition and manipulated popular anger into anti-Semitic pogroms. Attempts at economic change, such as land reform, were incomplete Brittany.